D6

Technology and Artificial Intelligence

This document adapts Reality Audit to technological systems and artificial intelligence by making data chains, models, objectives, classifications, interfaces, decisions, human roles, effects, and correction paths traceable.

Audit types in this domain

Primary audit types

  • A3Model Audit Examines model structure, parameters, objectives, validation, uncertainty, domain of validity, and assignment to actuality.
  • A5System and Institutional Audit Examines data chains, implementation, ownership, decision paths, monitoring, appeal, incentives, and responsibility.
  • A6Authority Audit Examines who may define objectives, approve the system, override output, make decisions, and answer for effects.

Supporting audit types

  • A1Language Audit Examines instructions, system messages, classifications, explanations, terms, disclaimers, and decision language.
  • A2Identity Audit Examines when a profile, category, risk group, or machine attribution replaces the person and new evidence.
  • A4Representation Audit Examines dashboards, rankings, synthetic content, visualisation, interfaces, explanations, and presentation of model output.
  • A7Practice Audit Examines actual use, human oversight, override, follow-up, deviations, harm, correction, and learning.

Abstract

Technological systems mediate among people, data, models, rules, institutions, and action. They may extend measurement, analysis, communication, and coordination, while also obscuring sources, amplifying error, diffusing responsibility, and allowing model output to govern without sufficient control.

The document establishes a bounded and corrigible audit from purpose and data grounds through model, implementation, interface, decision, actual effect, appeal, and correction. It does not presume that automation or AI is harmful, and it does not treat technical operation or market success as proof of correspondence, safety, or legitimacy.

This application document does not replace cybersecurity governance, privacy impact assessment, product safety, legal advice, sector regulation, technical testing, or professional responsibility. It organises the distinctions and documentation requirements to which those processes must remain answerable.

1

Purpose and scope

The purpose is to make the technological decision-and-effect chain traceable from need, data, and model through implementation, user action, decision, actual consequence, appeal, and correction. The document does not treat technology as a unified actor or attribute hidden intention to a system.

The scope includes software, data platforms, algorithmic systems, automated decisions, risk models, recommender systems, generative AI, language models, sensor and surveillance technology, robotics, digital interfaces, and combinations of human and machine decision-making.

Reality Audit does not presume that a technological system is wrong or unjust. It may conclude with supported correspondence, qualified correspondence, unresolved uncertainty, insufficient grounds, error, capture risk, or capture identified.

2

The technology chain and decisive distinctions

A technological service passes through several stages: purpose, requirements, data, representation, model, objective, implementation, testing, deployment, interface, user action, decision, output, effect, monitoring, appeal, and correction. Error and responsibility may arise at one or several stages.

The audit must therefore distinguish data from phenomenon, model from actuality, output from decision, correlation from causation, synthetic content from registered trace, human oversight from formal approval, and technical function from legitimate and safe use.

Decisive distinctions in the technology and AI chain
ConceptFunctionIs not automatically
DataRegistered, derived, or generated values used by the system.The phenomenon, person, or event itself.
Training materialMaterial used to fit or train a model.A neutral or representative sample of actuality.
ModelA bounded structure transforming input into output under rules and parameters.The actual mechanism or object itself.
Objective or loss functionA formalised signal against which the system is optimised.The whole human or institutional purpose.
OutputA score, classification, text, image, recommendation, or other system result.A decision, explanation, true claim, or right action.
Automated decisionA decision in which system output wholly or partly governs the result.Responsibility without a human owner.
Generated contentNew content produced from model and instruction.A registered event, original source, or verified fact.
ExplanationA presentation of why or how an output was produced.A complete causal or normative justification.
Human oversightA real ability to understand, stop, override, and correct.A human merely clicking approval or standing formally in the chain.
AccuracyA measure of correspondence against a defined test basis.Safety, fairness, general validity, or legitimate use.
3

Mandate, lifecycle, affected persons, and responsibility

The audit must bound the system, version, use context, period, user group, and decision chain. It must identify who defined the need and objective, who supplied data and model, who approved deployment, who used the output, and who can stop or correct the system.

A system may change through model updates, new data, altered user practice, integrations, and context. Version and time period therefore form part of the audit object itself.

TI1

Bounded system

Identify product, model, version, function, integration, user group, geographical scope, and period.

TI2

Purpose and necessity

Document the problem the system is intended to address, why technology or AI was chosen, and which less intrusive alternatives exist.

TI3

Actor and provider chain

Map developer, data provider, model provider, integrator, purchaser, operator, decision-maker, and control body.

TI4

Affected persons

Identify who is analysed, classified, prioritised, affected, or excluded, including people who are not direct users.

TI5

Decision and consequence

Establish what the output may trigger, which rights, access, resources, or actions may change, and how serious the consequence is.

TI6

Lifecycle and change

Document design, testing, deployment, update, monitoring, deviation, withdrawal, and retirement.

TI7

Competence and impartiality

Record technical, professional, legal, and ethical competence, financial interests, and need for independent control.

TI8

Responsibility points

Identify who owns purpose, data, model, deployment, individual case, appeal, correction, and final decision.

4

Data, training material, provenance, and representativeness

Data are produced through selection, measurement, registration, categorisation, combination, and derivation. Volume does not automatically make the material representative or correct. A large dataset may repeat a systematic error at scale.

Training material, evaluation data, and production data must be distinguished. Where personal data, copyrighted material, sensitive information, or third-party material is used, legal basis, access, limits, and safeguards must be visible.

TD1

Provenance

Document origin, collection method, time, licence, access, and changes for relevant data.

TD2

Fitness for purpose

Test whether the data are suitable for the concrete purpose and relevant population or situation.

TD3

Selection and absence

Map who and what is represented, underrepresented, overrepresented, or entirely absent.

TD4

Labelling and categories

Document who labelled data, which definitions were used, disagreement, error rate, and changes.

TD5

Cleaning and transformation

Make filtering, deduplication, normalisation, synthesis, imputation, and derived variables traceable.

TD6

Data quality and leakage

Test errors, missing values, copies, common source origin, temporal leakage, and mixing between training and test.

TD7

Rights and safeguards

Record privacy, copyright, consent, confidentiality, security, terms of use, and rights to deletion or access.

TD8

Corrigible data chain

Establish how errors are corrected in source, derived datasets, model, output, and systems that received the data.

5

Models, objectives, validation, and uncertainty

The model must be examined together with the function it optimises, thresholds, parameters, test grounds, and context of use. A performance metric may be high while the target poorly represents the purpose or the cost of error is distributed asymmetrically.

Validation within one dataset or institution does not automatically establish validity after changes in time, place, language, population, equipment, or practice.

TM1

Model identity

Document model type, version, parameters, training process, libraries, provider, and known limitations.

TM2

Objective and optimisation

Make visible which signal, loss function, or business objective the model optimises and which human purpose it represents only indirectly.

TM3

Performance measures

Use measures that answer to use and error consequence, and do not report averages alone where subgroups or rare events are decisive.

TM4

Validation

Distinguish internal testing, external testing, prospective testing, robustness, stress testing, and actual effect after deployment.

TM5

Uncertainty and calibration

Document how scores and probabilities correspond to actual frequencies and how uncertainty is shown to users.

TM6

Domain of validity

Establish which populations, languages, environments, tasks, and periods were tested and when the model must not be used.

TM7

Alternatives and sensitivity

Test relevant alternative models, thresholds, feature choices, and assumptions where these may change the conclusion.

TM8

Operation and model change

Monitor changing data, behaviour, error rates, misuse, updates, and differences between test and actual use.

6

Automated decisions, classification, and human responsibility

An automated system may support, rank, filter, or trigger a decision. The audit must establish whether the human can genuinely understand and override the system, or whether human participation merely stamps the output formally.

A classification is a model- and rule-bound assignment. It must not become identical with the person, motive, future, or concrete case. New and individual evidence must be able to correct the category.

TA1

Degree of automation

Document whether the system informs, recommends, prioritises, rejects, approves, or independently triggers action.

TA2

Thresholds and rules

Make thresholds, exceptions, manual rules, and consequences of different outputs visible to responsible roles.

TA3

Meaningful human oversight

Test whether the human has time, competence, information, and authority to depart from output without unreasonable cost or sanction.

TA4

Individual relevance

Establish whether the case contains information the model cannot represent and how it is assessed before decision.

TA5

Explanation and reasons

Distinguish technical explanation of output from the professional, legal, or normative reasons for the decision.

TA6

Responsible decision-maker

Identify a person or function that owns the final decision, contradiction, and correction.

TA7

Appeal and reassessment

Provide a real route through which facts, category, model output, rule use, and decision can be examined again.

TA8

Downstream effect

Trace how scores and categories are stored, shared, and reused, and how errors are removed from later decisions.

7

Generative AI, output, sources, and synthetic content

Generative AI produces text, images, audio, video, code, or other representations from model, instruction, and context. The output may be useful without being a source, a registered trace, or a verified claim.

The audit must make visible what is generated, which sources or context were actually checked, who edited or approved it, and which claims require independent verification.

TG1

Labelling and status

Make visible when material is wholly or partly generated, distinguishing output from registered source, simulation, and human assessment.

TG2

Source verification

Verify quotations, names, numbers, links, legal rules, professional claims, and other testable elements against actual sources.

TG3

Instruction and context

Document relevant system instruction, user input, retrieved documents, tool use, and limits where needed to understand the output.

TG4

Fabrication and persuasive form

Test whether fluency, confident tone, or detail conceals absent grounds, contradiction, or fabricated sources.

TG5

Copyright and privacy

Assess rights and safeguards concerning input, training material, style imitation, personal data, voice, image, and output.

TG6

Synthetic identity and representation

Prevent generated portraits, voices, quotations, or roles from being presented as actual persons or events without clear labelling and grounds.

TG7

Human editing and responsibility

Identify who selected, edited, published, and took responsibility for the concrete use.

TG8

Correction and version

Make material error visible, update derived documents, and record which output version was used in a decision or publication.

8

Safety, security, robustness, misuse, and monitoring

Technical performance under normal test conditions is not the same as safety in actual use. The audit must include failure modes, attacks, unexpected interaction, misuse, human adaptation, and consequences of failure.

Security may require that details are not publicly disclosed. Restricted access must then be recorded as a limitation rather than filled with prior conclusions.

TS1

Hazard and threat model

Identify harm, misuse, adversaries, unintended use, dependencies, and persons or systems that may be affected.

TS2

Testing and stress testing

Test normal, extreme, rare, and hostile conditions relevant to the use.

TS3

Access and control

Limit data, model, tools, administrator rights, and dangerous functions by necessary role and traceable use.

TS4

Fail-safe and stop

Define safe fallback, human override, isolation, notification, and ability to stop or roll back rapidly.

TS5

Incident and reporting

Record errors, near misses, misuse, breaches, harm, and unexpected effects with responsibility and timely follow-up.

TS6

Post-deployment monitoring

Track performance, changing data, subgroups, security breaches, complaints, overrides, and actual effects.

TS7

Provider and supply chain

Map third-party models, libraries, cloud services, updates, dependencies, and vulnerability notification.

TS8

Independent control

Use external or separated control where consequence, self-interest, complexity, or lack of access makes internal assessment insufficient.

9

Privacy, rights, equality, access, and appeal

Technology may render interventions invisible by distributing them among data source, provider, model, and user organisation. The audit must make it possible to identify what was done, on what grounds, by whom, and with what rights to access, response, and correction.

Equal treatment is not identical with equal output. The audit must test whether relevant similarities and differences are represented, whether errors are distributed asymmetrically, and whether people can leave an erroneous category.

TR1

Data minimisation

Collect and use only data relevant and necessary for the documented purpose.

TR2

Information and intelligibility

Give affected persons understandable information about system use, data categories, consequences, and responsible actor.

TR3

Access and inspection

Establish which data, output, logs, rules, and reasons the affected person can access within lawful limits.

TR4

Right to correction

Enable correction of source data, category, attribution, and derived consequences throughout the chain.

TR5

Equality and subgroups

Test error rates, access, and consequences for relevant groups without converting group analysis into a total judgment about an individual.

TR6

Accessibility and exclusion

Assess language, disability, digital access, competence, and alternative channels for those the system does not serve.

TR7

Appeal without retaliation

Protect questions, reservation, complaint, and request for human review from adverse classifications lacking independent grounds.

TR8

Effective review

Ensure a competent actor can change the decision, correct data, and stop further use rather than merely explain the system.

10

Combining audit types and findings

Technology and AI cases often require several audit types. Each type must have its own question and material. A model error does not automatically establish system capture; an incomprehensible explanation does not automatically establish an unlawful decision; and unequal output does not automatically establish motive or discrimination.

Findings must be bounded to the system, version, use, and documented consequence. They must distinguish technical performance, data quality, model validity, practice, rights, authority, and system governance.

Domain-specific finding examples
CategoryDefensible formulationOverextended formulation
F1 — Supported correspondenceThe system corresponds to its documented purpose and test grounds within the bounded domain of validity, with traceable human oversight and correction paths.The system is intelligent and objective.
F2 — Qualified correspondencePerformance is supported for the main population, but documentation for two language groups and long-term effect is limited.The system works or does not work.
F3 — Unresolved uncertaintyThe material does not permit separation of model change from altered user practice as the explanation for the new error rate.Both explanations are equally true.
F4 — Insufficient groundsThere is no independent validation for the relevant population and decision consequence.The model is useless.
F5 — Error or contradictionThe system describes the output as individual risk, while the documentation supports only group-level statistical association.All results are false.
F6 — Capture riskThe model score receives priority in the reasons while individual counter-material is reduced to free text; whether the score governed the outcome requires further testing.The algorithm has taken over.
F7 — Capture identifiedIn the bounded decision chain, the risk score is documented as replacing corrected case information; relevant override was rejected and produced concrete loss of access.Artificial intelligence has captured the institution.
11

Correction, governance, safeguards, and further programme

Correction must address the source of the finding: data, category, model, threshold, interface, procedure, role, decision, supplier term, or institutional incentive. The measure must be proportionate and carry responsibility, deadline, effect measure, side-effect test, and rollback option.

An update or new model version is not by itself proof of correction. The organisation must show what changed, which prior outputs and decisions were affected, whether affected persons received repair, and whether actual effects improved.

TC1

Correct the proper stage

Correct the error where it arose and trace consequences through data, model, system, decision, records, and affected persons.

TC2

Interim protection

Stop, limit, or add human oversight where uncertainty or consequence makes continued use indefensible.

TC3

Visible change

Document version, reason for change, testing, approval, deployment, and which prior results require reassessment.

TC4

Individual repair

Correct data, category, decision, access, and other concrete effects for persons affected by documented error.

TC5

Responsibility and provider governance

Allocate responsibility between provider and user organisation without allowing contract or technical complexity to empty the responsibility chain.

TC6

Independent review

Use independent control for high risk, major asymmetry, limited access, or serious consequence.

TC7

Effect and side effects

Test whether correction actually reduces the error without creating new harm, exclusion, safety failure, or goal displacement.

TC8

Closure and retirement

Define conditions for closure, reassessment, rollback, retirement, data deletion, and preservation of necessary audit trails.

Grounds and references

  1. DET SOM ERFoundational work for the relations among actuality, knowledge, language, model, system, and practice.
  2. Corrigible RealismPhilosophical placement of correspondence, traceability, and corrigibility.
  3. Reality AuditMethodological overview and common principles.
  4. Audit StandardNormative requirements for documented audit.
  5. Applicable technology, AI, privacy, consumer, employment, safety, and sector rulesMust be added according to system, jurisdiction, and use; this document does not replace them.
V

Revision history

Document version
1.0
First published
18 June 2026
1.0

First public edition.